Language Learning: How Input and Output Work Together

1. The Two Pillars of Mastering a Language

When we learn a language, we do so to speak it. Language acquisition and language production are both essential for mastering a language.

Two main hypotheses focus on these aspects: The Input Hypothesis (Krashen, 1982) and the Output Hypothesis (Swain, 1985).

Krashen (1982) viewed language acquisition as a result of receiving comprehensible input that is slightly beyond the learner's current level of competence in a low-anxiety environment, which allows the brain to acquire the language naturally.

While brilliant at describing how languages are learned, the Input Hypothesis treated language production merely as a product of learning. Merrill Swain (1985) argued that input alone was insufficient and that output was not just a result of input, but could be a cause of learning itself.

Swain (1985) identified three main functions of output: the noticing function (where learners identify gaps in their knowledge when they cannot fully express their thoughts), the hypothesis-testing function (where learners try out words and grammar rules to see if they are correct, refining them through feedback), and the metalinguistic function (where learners reflect on how the language works). In summary, as Steve Kaufmann said, it is about identifying "gaps between what we want to say and what we're able to say" (Steve Kaufmann - lingosteve, 2016).

2. Finding the Balance in Practice

Some people might say that these two theories are in opposition, each trying to prove it is more important than the other. I believe they complement each other perfectly. As I said at the beginning, we need both to master a language properly. The key is to find a balance between input and output and to understand the role of each in language learning.

Personally, I think input is more important at an early stage, especially for young learners. Just as we cannot draw water from a dry well, our brains cannot produce language that has not been put there in the first place. Steve Kaufmann made an interesting point in his video – the amount of language we engage with is much higher in input than in output; therefore, input provides more opportunities to learn new vocabulary and grammar (Steve Kaufmann - lingosteve, 2016). Another point is that output requires interaction, a conversation with another person. If there is no one to talk to, how can we communicate and get the feedback that is supposed to help us improve? Many people learn languages by themselves in the comfort of their homes, primarily through input, and this approach can work for them. I am sure that if an opportunity presents itself, they will go and try to practice their output.

Also important for output are timing and environment. We need to understand that a learner should be ready to talk and feel free and safe to express their thoughts. Forcing a person to speak will create anxiety and stress, which in turn affects their output. "Spoken competence is [...] the most fragile and volatile. We all know how articulate, erudite and focussed we can be when sitting in a relaxed group of friends and putting the world to rights. But can we do the same in front of an audience? [...] Or when we're tired, unwell, in or out of love? Every human factor affects our ability to use even our mother tongue competently and all these factors are carried over into second language contexts" (T-Kit No.2 - Methodology in Language Learning, 2006, p. 9). Krashen (1982) introduced the concept of the "affective filter," which blocks language from being acquired, and I think this concept can be applied to output as well – when we are stressed, we cannot effectively produce language either.

3. Theories in a Modern World

When I look at these two theories, I cannot help but notice that they both originated in the 1980s. This raises some questions: How has the language learning environment changed, and are these theories still applicable? I think both are still valid. No matter what, we are still human beings, and our brains still go through the same processes of learning languages and using them to communicate. However, there has been a shift in focus regarding form and accuracy. We now live in a world where English is used mostly by non-native speakers; people do not need perfect grammar to understand each other. They pay less attention to speaking perfect English and more to communicating meaningfully (Canagarajah, 2007). The Output Hypothesis focuses on correction and gap-noticing that happens through output, with a lot of emphasis on grammar and structure. I think correction and gap-noticing are still relevant, but nowadays the focus is shifting toward meaning. Two people speaking to each other might let grammatical mistakes pass but would pay attention to understanding the general idea of the conversation.

4. Technology’s Role in Learning

We live in a world where comprehensible input is available 24/7. We can expose ourselves to all different languages and all types of information whenever we want – it is as if the power of learning has been given to the learner. I find this quite fascinating. I can easily find a video that explains a complicated chemistry topic I could not grasp in school, presenting it in simple, understandable language so I can learn it in five minutes.

Another recent change that has affected language learning is the widespread use of AI. It can definitely create a stress-free environment for those who are scared of asking questions, being corrected, or being misunderstood in public. It is always available, can provide instant feedback, and can explain grammar rules or word usage in a comprehensible way without the learner feeling judged. However, we must remember that AI is a tool for practice that can prepare learners for real human interaction, not a substitute for it.

Our world and societies evolve and change, and the way we perceive and learn languages adapts to these changes. A hundred years ago, most people did not find it necessary to learn languages. Fifty years ago, people wanted to achieve native-like proficiency while being stuck in classrooms doing drills and direct translation. Now, people can speak multiple languages and focus on delivering the meaning over form, and they have an endless amount of resources to help them learn. What is next? Maybe someone will create a computer chip that could be implanted in our brains, allowing us to understand any language so we no longer have to learn them. I guess we’ll have to see it for ourselves.

5. Your Thoughts

To conclude this article, I am going to leave you with two questions and would like to hear your ideas and thoughts.

1. How do you think the input and output theories created 40 years ago reflect our current state of language learning?

2. How does our advancement in technology affect learning languages today, and where could it take us?

 

References:

Canagarajah, S. (2007). Lingua Franca English, multilingual communities, and language acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 91(s1), 921-937.

Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon Press.

Steve Kaufmann - lingosteve. (2016, April 17). Merrill Swain’s output hypothesis [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZPw7db6D9pY

Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In Gass, Susan; Carolyn, Madden (eds.). Input in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

T-Kit No.2 - Methodology in language learning. (2006).

 

AI tools (DeepSeek) were used for checking grammar, punctuation and the APA layout; all content was researched and composed by the author

A Drummer With One Hand: Are We Assessing Multilingual Children Fairly?

When I watched a video of Ofelia García lecturing on translanguaging, one thought left me puzzled. She argued that by assessing a multilingual child in only one language, we are assessing less than half of their repertoire, unfairly disadvantaging them compared to monolingual children who are assessed in their entire language repertoire. She compared this to assessing two drummers: “someone plays with two hands, the other one only plays with one, and you're thinking that the sound has to be the same” (MuDiLe 2017, 2017, 10:46-10:57).

At first, I strongly disagreed. I didn't understand why a person who speaks two languages was being compared to a drummer using only one hand. If we continue the musical instrument metaphor, I see speaking multiple languages as being able to play multiple instruments. Each learned language brings something new, expanding cognitive functions and abilities. From this perspective, when we assess only one language, we are assessing proficiency in one specific instrument, seemingly placing everyone in equal conditions.

To give another example: it is like when we want to study abroad, we must prove our proficiency in the language of instruction. The institution will not give us extra credit for our other languages; they will only assess our ability in the one required for academic success.

However, after further reflection on García's point, I realized she was focusing her lecture specifically on children, particularly language minority children in the context of U.S. immigrants. Understanding that these children are already in a stressful situation, forced to quickly adapt and learn a new language, helped me understand her "drummer" metaphor. I think this also applies to children learning English in their home countries. It takes years to master a new language, and if we test new learners solely in the target language, we risk misjudging their actual knowledge. It is well known that listening comprehension develops long before speaking. As Stephen Krashen stated, beginning to speak is not the start of language acquisition (Mark Rounds, 2010).

If we take that into account, along with the principles of translanguaging, we should shift our focus from assessing pure linguistic accuracy of young learners in one language to evaluating a student's overall communicative competence and conceptual understanding. This means creating assessments that allow learners to demonstrate their knowledge using their full linguistic repertoire, ensuring we are measuring their intellect and comprehension, not just their proficiency in a single code.

In my class, if I ask my students something and they reply in a mix of English and their L1, or just in their L1, I see it as an achievement. It means they understand what I am saying and are confidently using their full language resources to communicate. With them being just four years old, that is more than enough.

 

References:

MuDiLe 2017. (2017, October 11). Ofelia García - Translanguaging [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5l1CcrRrck0

Mark Rounds. (2010, October 15). Stephen Krashen on Language Acquisition [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NiTsduRreug

AI tools (DeepSeek) were used for checking grammar, punctuation and the APA layout; all content was researched and composed by the author